Theory of Competitive Advantage Value Chain Analysis

Theory of Competitive Advantage Value Chain Analysis The initial theory regarding relative advantages was related to comparative advantages of regions or nations. It included land, location, labor, natural resources and local population size. But it is not true always as rise of some the most advanced industrial nations have proved that the above factors have less influence in their course of development. For example, Japan had disadvantage regarding availability of raw materials, abundant space and even access to other lands. But still the Japanese companies have prospered and rose to be among the best in the world. Again Japan also has disadvantage in terms of population size available. But that could not stop Japan from being a leader in business. Also economic hardship can really fuel growth in a nation. It has been seen both in case if both Japan and Germany. Both these nations were under severe economic trouble after World War II, but still they grew to be industry major countries in the world. The reason for such behavior of nations or organizations in particular can be understood from The theory of competitive advantage which says that there are other critical factors that determine the industry leadership. As per Michael Porter, the renowned Harvard business school professor sustainable industrial growth is hardly dependent on the above inherited factors. But it depends on groups of interconnected firms, suppliers, related industries, and institutions that arise in certain locations and termed them as clusters. These clusters are geographic concentrations of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, and associated institutions in a particular field. They grow on locations where enough resources and competences amass and reach a critical threshold, giving it a key position in a given economic branch of activity, with a decisive sustainable competitive advantage over others places, or even a world supremacy in that field. Porter says clusters can influence competition in three ways: They can increase the productivity of the companies in the cluster. They can drive innovation in the field. They can stimulate new businesses in the field. The competitive advantage of any industry or organization is determined by five forces of Porter. These five forces help the managers to focus on competitive forces that prevail in the industry and the possible threats to their organizations. Diagrammatic view of Porters five forces These are: Existing competitive rivalry among organizations in industry: The more that companies compete against one another for customers, ex- by lowering the prices of their products or by increasing advertising the lower is the level of industry profits. So this is a threat to the companies. Hence in order to sustain the companies may come up with new strategies and innovations in their technologies as well as business processes. Thus competition fuels growth in the industry as well as leads to innovations. Threat of new market entrants: The easier it is for companies to enter the industry, because for ex- barriers to entry, such as brand loyalty are low, more the likely it is for industry prices and hence the industry profits to be low. In the wake of such a situation the companies might go for further innovations or even differentiations in their products or businesses. Thus it helps in the evolution process of the companies. Bargaining power of buyers: It depends on the size of the customers. The bargaining powers of the customers come if they are large in size. So they can bargain to drive down the price of that output. As a result the industry producers might encounter low profits. So the bargaining power of buyers also decides the competitive advantage of the industry. Power of suppliers: The suppliers also have important role in deciding the competitive advantage of firms. If there are only few large suppliers of an important input, then suppliers can drive up the price of that input and expensive inputs result in lower profits for profits for companies in an industry. Threat of substitute products (including technology change): Often the output of one industry is a substitute for the output of another industry. Ex- plastic may be substitute for steel in some industry. When this type of substitutes exists in the industry companies cannot demand very high prices for it or customers will switch to the substitute and this constraint keeps their profits low. Again the above all factors lead the managers to take decisions in four business level strategies to gain competitive advantage. These are: Low cost strategy: It is the strategy where the company focuses all its energies to lower its costs in all the departments. As a result it can sell its products in lower costs than its rivals. Here though the companies are selling the products at low prices but since the production costs are low the company still makes profits. Ex- BIC competes Gillette with this strategy in razor blade industry. Focused low cost strategy: In such a strategy managers focus to serve only a segment of overall market and tries to be lowest cost organization in that segment. Differentiation strategy: It is the strategy where organizations products can be distinguished from the products of other organizations on factors like product design, quality, service, or after sales service. Here the process of differentiation may be unique and expensive. Coca cola, PepsiCo, PG practice such strategies. Focused differentiation strategy: it is the strategy that tries to serve only one segment of the overall market and aims to be the most differentiated organization serving that segment. For ex, BMW focuses on this strategy. The theory of competitive advantage can be also easily extended to the position of various nations. Here four factors have taken into consideration to nalayze the competitive position of the nations. Germany and Japan are most apt examples of such a competitive advantage. These are discussed as follows: Four factors for competitive advantage: The strategy, structure and rivalry of firms: As there is high competition among the firms, this competitive environment leads the firms to work harder for increase in productivity and innovation. The Japanese companies are cooperative at certain levels but they are also fiercely competitive. Thus it is the strategy and structure and rivalry of the firms that gives rise to excellence to the firms in terms of efficiency. Demand conditions: If the firms face challenging and demanding customers then they constantly face pressure to improve their competiveness by innovative products, high quality etc. Related supporting industry: A company prospers when supporting companies are located in the same area. Presence of supporting companies in the vicinity gives the firm added advantage in terms of gaining technological support and expertise. Factor conditions: Specialized factors of production are skilled labor, capital and infrastructure. Non-key factors or general use factors, such as unskilled labor and raw materials, can be obtained by any company and, hence, do not generate sustained competitive advantage. However, specialized factors involve heavy, sustained investment. They are more difficult to duplicate. This creates a competitive advantage, because if other firms cannot easily duplicate these factors, they are valuable. VALUE CHAIN Value Chain is a model that helps to analyze specific activities through which firms can create value and competitive advantage. A value chain is a chain of activities for a firm operating in a specific industry. The business unit is the appropriate level for construction of a value chain, not the divisional level or corporate level. Products pass through all activities of the chain in order, and at each activity the product gains some value. The chain of activities gives the products more added value than the sum of the independent activitys value. It is important not to mix the concept of the value chain with the costs occurring throughout the activities. A diamond cutter, as a profession, can be used to illustrate the difference of cost and the value chain. The cutting activity may have a low cost, but the activity adds much of the value to the end product, since a rough diamond is significantly less valuable than a cut diamond.Value Chain framework model Value Chain Model of Porter THE ACTIVITIES OF THE VALUE CHAIN Primary activities (line functions) Inbound Logistics. Includes receiving, storing, inventory control, transportation planning. Operations. Includes machining, packaging, assembly, equipment maintenance, testing and all other value-creating activities that transform the inputs into the final product. Outbound Logistics. The activities required to get the finished product at the customers: warehousing, order fulfillment, transportation, distribution management. Marketing and Sales. The activities associated with getting buyers to purchase the product, including: channel selection, advertising, promotion, selling, pricing, retail management, etc. Service. The activities that maintain and enhance the products value, including: customer support, repair services, installation, training, spare parts management, upgrading, etc. Support activities (Staff functions, overhead) Procurement. Procurement of raw materials, servicing, spare parts, buildings, machines, etc. Technology Development. Includes technology development to support the value chain activities. Such as: Research and Development, Process automation, design, redesign. Human Resource Management. The activities associated with recruiting, development (education), retention and compensation of employees and managers. Firm Infrastructure. Includes general management, planning management, legal, finance, accounting, public affairs, quality management, etc. A COST ADVANTAGE BASED ON THE VALUE CHAIN A firm may create a cost advantage: by reducing the cost of individual value chain activities, or by reconfiguring the value chain. Note that a cost advantage can be created by reducing the costs of the primary activities, but also by reducing the costs of the support activities. Recently there have been many companies that achieved a cost advantage by the clever use of Information Technology. Once the value chain has been defined, a cost analysis can be performed by assigning costs to the value chain activities. Porter identified 10 cost drivers related to value chain activities: Economies of scale. Learning. Capacity utilization. Linkages among activities. Interrelationships among business units. Degree of vertical integration. Timing of market entry. Firms policy of cost or differentiation. Geographic location. Institutional factors (regulation, union activity, taxes, etc.). A firm develops a cost advantage by controlling these drivers better than its competitors do. A cost advantage also can be pursued by Reconfiguring the value chain. Reconfiguration means structural changes such as: a new production process, new distribution channels, or a different sales approach. DIFFERENTIATION AND VALUE CHAIN A differentiation advantage can arise from any part of the value chain. For example, procurement of inputs that are unique and not widely available to competitors can create differentiation, as can distribution channels that offer high service levels. Differentiation stems from uniqueness. A differentiation advantage may be achieved either by changing individual value chain activities to increase uniqueness in the final product or by reconfiguring the value chain. Porter identified several drivers of uniqueness: Policies and decisions Linkages among activities Timing Location Interrelationships Learning Integration Scale (e.g. better service as a result of large scale) Institutional factors Many of these also serve as cost drivers. Differentiation often results in greater costs, resulting in tradeoffs between cost and differentiation. There are several ways in which a firm can reconfigure its value chain in order to create uniqueness. It can forward integrate in order to perform functions that once were performed by its customers. It can backward integrate in order to have more control over its inputs. It may implement new process technologies or utilize new distribution channels. Ultimately, the firm may need to be creative in order to develop a novel value chain configuration that increases product differentiation. TECHNOLOGY AND VALUE CHAIN Because technology is employed to some degree in every value creating activity, changes in technology can impact competitive advantage by incrementally changing the activities themselves or by making possible new configurations of the value chain. Various technologies are used in both primary value activities and support activities: Inbound Logistics Technologies Transportation Material handling Material storage Communications Testing Information systems Operations Technologies Process Materials Machine tools Material handling Packaging Maintenance Testing Building design operation Information systems Outbound Logistics Technologies Transportation Material handling Packaging Communications Information systems Marketing Sales Technologies Media Audio/video Communications Information systems Service Technologies Testing Communications Information systems Note that many of these technologies are used across the value chain. For example, information systems are seen in every activity. Similar technologies are used in support activities. In addition, technologies related to training, computer-aided design, and software development frequently are employed in support activities. To the extent that these technologies affect cost drivers or uniqueness, they can lead to a competitive advantage. LINKAGES BETWEEN VALUE CHAIN ACTIVITIES Value chain activities are not isolated from one another. Rather, one value chain activity often affects the cost or performance of other ones. Linkages may exist between primary activities and also between primary and support activities. Consider the case in which the design of a product is changed in order to reduce manufacturing costs. Suppose that inadvertently the new product design results in increased service costs; the cost reduction could be less than anticipated and even worse, there could be a net cost increase. Sometimes however, the firm may be able to reduce cost in one activity and consequently enjoy a cost reduction in another, such as when a design change simultaneously reduces manufacturing costs and improves reliability so that the service costs also are reduced. Through such improvements the firm has the potential to develop a competitive advantage. ANALYZING BUSINESS UNIT INTERRELATIONSHIPS Interrelationships among business units form the basis for a horizontal strategy. Such business unit interrelationships can be identified by a value chain analysis. Tangible interrelationships offer direct opportunities to create a synergy among business units. For example, if multiple business units require a particular raw material, the procurement of that material can be shared among the business units. This sharing of the procurement activity can result in cost reduction. Such interrelationships may exist simultaneously in multiple value chain activities. Unfortunately, attempts to achieve synergy from the interrelationships among different business units often fall short of expectations due to unanticipated drawbacks. The cost of coordination, the cost of reduced flexibility, and organizational practicalities should be analyzed when devising a strategy to reap the benefits of the synergies. OUTSOURCING VALUE CHAIN ACTIVITIES A firm may specialize in one or more value chain activities and outsource the rest. The extent to which a firm performs upstream and downstream activities is described by its degree of vertical integration. A thorough value chain analysis can illuminate the business system to facilitate outsourcing decisions. To decide which activities to outsource, managers must understand the firms strengths and weaknesses in each activity, both in terms of cost and ability to differentiate. Managers may consider the following when selecting activities to outsource: Whether the activity can be performed cheaper or better by suppliers. Whether the activity is one of the firms core competencies from which stems a cost advantage or product differentiation? The risk of performing the activity in-house. If the activity relies on fast-changing technology or the product is sold in a rapidly-changing market, it may be advantageous to outsource the activity in order to maintain flexibility and avoid the risk of investing in specialized assets. Whether the outsourcing of an activity can result in business process improvements such as reduced lead time, higher flexibility, reduced inventory, etc. Thus we can see that every aspect of an organization can be rightly explained in light of value chain analysis to judge the competitive position of the organization. Normally, the Value Chain of a company is connected to other Value Chains and is part of a larger Value Chain. Hence, developing a competitive advantage depends on how efficiently we can analyze and manage the entire Value Chain.

Prohibition of Alcohol

Salvatore Norge Tim Walsh English 101-L01 3 November 2010 Arguing Positions: Prohibition of Alcohol Alcohol abuse is an extremely ravaging calamity, and many resolutions have developed as a result of its effects. The eighteenth amendment was ratified in 1920, and eliminating the legal use of alcohol was adopted. Also known as the prohibition of alcohol, it became effective in the United States of America. Its intentions were to prevent the manufacture, import, export, sales, and consumption of alcohol and alcoholic beverages.After thirteen years of execution, it was repealed in 1933 due to the ratification of the twenty-first amendment. Alcohol is presently legal throughout the United States, and approximately one-hundred thousand deaths occur each year attributed to alcohol. Is prohibition the answer? Prohibition has delivered a handful of issues to the United States. Crime rates dramatically increased as groups, street gangs, and gangsters were involved in multi-million dollar orga nizations dealing with illegal sales of alcohol.Saloons quickly evolved into areas used for illegal sales and consumption of alcohol, which were later known as speakeasies. Social problems were attributed to the prohibition era, and played a wide role with public opinion. Thing began to heat up as repeal was eagerly anticipated. Alcohol abuse is presently a serious problem in the United States. Risk and health loss is rapidly increasing, and alcohol remains accessible to anyone meeting certain legal requirements. The use of alcohol is persevered throughout America, and it’s held accountable for a large number of problems.In 2005, there were 43,443 alcohol related traffic fatalities in the United States. Sixty percent of all homicides are attributed to alcohol. The abuse of alcohol affects the psychological state as well. There are more than twelve million alcoholics in the United States, and alcoholism is considered the number one drug problem in the country. Hundreds of thou sands of family members and friends are directly affected from this concern. Imagine the number of alcoholics that would seek help if their addictive substance was illegalized.Who would respect the prohibition of alcohol once returned? It’s likely for both the law and alcohol to be abused considering another prohibition. That would cause more chaos for the country. On the other hand, alcohol isn’t always necessarily being abused. Moderate alcohol drinkers tend to live long and healthy lives. A glass of wine a day may increase heart health, and alcohol doesn’t stop its benefits with the heart. A few drinks a day may lower the risk of a variety of illnesses and extend life.It seems that arguments for legalization of alcohol are holding ground against prohibition. The controversy has allocated the country waist deep in obstacles, and who wants to obtain such a conceding way out? The authorities of the United States have appeared to resign against fighting the illeg al use of alcohol, and have resumed all opportunity for legal access to alcohol use. Why haven’t controlled substances been illegalized anticipating future issues with drug wars? Numbers don’t lie, and neither does a positive attitude behind a righteous cause.

The Twilight Saga 2: New Moon Chapter 15 PRESSURE

IT WAS SPRING BREAK IN FORKS AGAIN. WHEN I WOKE UP on Monday morning, I lay in bed for a few seconds absorbing that. Last spring break, I'd been hunted by a vampire, too. I hoped this wasn't some kind of tradition forming. Already I was falling into the pattern of things in La Push. I'd spent Sunday mostly on the beach, while Charlie hung out with Billy at the Blacks' house. I was supposed to be with Jacob, but Jacob had other things to do, so I wandered alone, keeping the secret from Charlie. When Jacob dropped in to check on me, he apologized for ditching me so much. He told me his schedule wasn't always this crazy, but until Victoria was stopped, the wolves were on red alert. When we walked along the beach now, he always held my hand. This made me brood over what Jared had said, about Jacob involving his â€Å"girlfriend.† I supposed that that was exactly what it looked like from the outside. As long as Jake and I knew how it really was, I shouldn't let those kinds of assumptions bother me. And maybe they wouldn't, if I hadn't known that Jacob would have loved for things to be what they appeared. But his hand felt nice as it warmed mine, and I didn't protest. I worked Tuesday afternoonJacob followed me on his bike to make sure I arrived safelyand Mike noticed. â€Å"Are you dating that kid from La Push? The sophomore?† He asked, poorly disguising the resentment in his tone. I shrugged. â€Å"Not in the technical sense of the word. I do spent most of my time with Jacob, though. He's my best friend.† Mike's eyes narrowed shrewdly. â€Å"Don't kid yourself, Bella. The guy's head over heels for you.† â€Å"I know,† I sighed. â€Å"Life is complicated.† â€Å"And girls are cruel,† Mike said under his breath. I supposed that was an easy assumption to make, too. That night, Sam and Emily joined Charlie and me for dessert at Billy's house. Emily brought a cake that would have won over a harder man than Charlie. I could see, as the conversation flowed naturally through a range of casual subjects, that any worries Charlie might have harbored about gangs in La Push were being dissolved. Jake and I skipped out early, to get some privacy. We went out to his garage and sat in the Rabbit. Jacob leaned his head back, his face drawn with exhaustion. â€Å"You need some sleep, Jake.† â€Å"I'll get around to it.† He reached over and took my hand. His skin was blazing on mine. â€Å"Is that one of those wolf things?† I asked him. â€Å"The heat, I mean.† â€Å"Yeah. We run a little warmer than the normal people. About one-oh-eight, one-oh-nine. I never get cold anymore. I could stand like this†he gestured to his bare torso†in a snowstorm and it wouldn't bother me. The flakes would turn to rain where I stood.† â€Å"And you all heal fastthat's a wolf thing, too?† â€Å"Yeah, wanna see? It's pretty cool.† His eyes flipped open and he grinned. He reached around me to the glove compartment and dug around for a minute. His hand came out with a pocketknife. â€Å"No, I do not want to see!† I shouted as soon as I realized what he was thinking. â€Å"Put that away!† Jacob chuckled, but shoved the knife back where it belonged. â€Å"Fine. It's a good thing we heal, though. You can't go see just any doctor when you're running a temperature that should mean you're dead.† â€Å"No, I guess not.† I thought about that for a minute. â€Å" And being so bigthat's part of it? Is that why you're all worried about Quil?† â€Å"That and the fact that Quil's grandfather says the kid could fry an egg on his forehead.† Jacob's face turned hopeless. â€Å"It won't be long now. There's no exact age it just builds and builds and then suddenly† He broke off, and it was a moment before he could speak again. â€Å"Sometimes, if you get really upset or something, that can trigger it early. But I wasn't upset about anythingI was happy.† He laughed bitterly. â€Å"Because of you, mostly. That's why it didn't happen to me sooner. Instead it just kept on building up inside meI was like a time bomb. You know what set me off? I got back from that movie and Billy said I looked weird. That was all, but I just snapped. And then II exploded. I almost ripped his face offmy own father!† He shuddered, and his face paled. â€Å"Is it really bad, Jake?† I asked anxiously, wishing I had some way to help him. â€Å"Are you miserable?† â€Å"No, I'm not miserable,† he told me. â€Å"Not anymore. Not now that you know. That was hard, before.† He leaned over so that his cheek was resting on top of my head. He was quiet for a moment, and I wondered what he was thinking about. Maybe I didn't want to know. â€Å"What's the hardest part?† I whispered, still wishing I could help. â€Å"The hardest part is feeling out of control,† he said slowly. â€Å"Feeling like I can't be sure of myselflike maybe you shouldn't be around me, like maybe nobody should. Like I'm a monster who might hurt somebody. You've seen Emily. Sam lost control of his temper for just one second and she was standing too close. And now there's nothing he can ever do to put it right again. I hear his thoughtsI know what that feels like â€Å"Who wants to be a nightmare, a monster? â€Å"And then, the way it comes so easily to me, the way I'm better at it than the rest of themdoes that make me even less human than Enbry or Sam? Sometimes I'm afraid that I'm losing myself.† â€Å"Is it hard? To find yourself again?† â€Å"At first,† he said. â€Å"It takes some practice to phase back and forth. But it's easier tor me.† â€Å"Why?† I wondered. â€Å"Because Ephraim Black was my father's grandfather, and Quil Ateara was my mother's grandfather.† â€Å"Quil?† I asked in confusion. â€Å"His great-grandfather,† Jacob clarified. â€Å"The Quil you know is my second cousin.† â€Å"But why does it matter who your great-grandfathers are?† â€Å"Because Ephraim and Quil were in the last pack. Levi Uley was the third. It's in my blood on both sides. I never had a chance. Like Quil doesn't have a chance.† His expression was bleak. â€Å"What's the very best part?† I asked, hoping to cheer him up. â€Å"The best part,† he said, suddenly smiling again, â€Å"is the speed.† â€Å"Better than the motorcycles?† He nodded, enthusiastic. â€Å"There's no comparison.† â€Å"How fast can you ?† â€Å"Run?† he finished my question. â€Å"Fast enough. What can I measure it by? We caught what was his name? Laurent? I imagine that means more to you than it would to someone else.† It did mean something to me. I couldn't imagine thatthe wolves running faster than a vampire. When the Cullens ran, they all but turned invisible with speed. â€Å"So, tell me something I don't know,† he said. â€Å"Something about vampires. How did you stand it, being around them? Didn't it creep you out?† â€Å"No,† I said curtly. My tone made him thoughtful for a moment. â€Å"Say, why'd your bloodsucker kill that James, anyway?† he asked suddenly. â€Å"James was trying to kill meit was like a game for him. He lost. Do you remember last spring when I was in the hospital down in Phoenix?† Jacob sucked in a breath. â€Å"He got that close?† â€Å"He got very, very close.† I stroked my scar. Jacob noticed, because he held the hand I moved. â€Å"What's that?† He traded hands, examining my right. â€Å"This is your funny scar, the cold one.† He looked at it closer, with new eyes, and gasped. â€Å"Yes, it's what you think it is,† I said. â€Å"James bit me.† His eyes bulged, and his face turned a strange, sallow color under the russet surface. He looked like he was about to be sick. â€Å"But if he bit you ? Shouldn't you be ?† He choked. â€Å"Edward saved me twice,† I whispered. â€Å"He sucked the venom outyou know, like with a rattlesnake.† I twitched as the pain lashed around the edges of the hole. But I wasn't the only one twitching. I could feel Jacob's whole body trembling next to mine. Even the car shook. â€Å"Careful, Jake. Easy. Ca in down.† â€Å"Yeah,† he panted. â€Å"Calm.† He shook his head back and forth quickly. After a moment, only his hands were shaking. â€Å"You okay?† â€Å"Yeah, almost. Tell me something else. Give me something else to think about.† â€Å"What do you want to know?† â€Å"I don't know.† He had his eyes closed, concentrating. â€Å"The extra stuff I guess. Did any of the other Cullens have extra talents? Like the mind reading?† I hesitated a second. This felt like a question he would ask of his spy, not his friend. But what was the point of hiding what I knew? It didn't matter now, and it would help him control himself. So I spoke quickly, the image of Emily's ruined face in my mind, and the hair rising on my arms. I couldn't imagine how the russet wolf would fit inside the RabbitJacob would tear the whole garage apart if he changed now. â€Å"Jasper could sort of control the emotions of the people around him. Not in a bad way, just to calm someone down, that kind of thing. It would probably help Paul a lot,† I added, teasing weakly. â€Å"And then Alice could see things that were going to happen. The future, you know, but not absolutely. The things she saw would change when someone changed the path they were on† Like how she'd seen me dying and she'd seen me becoming one of them. Two things that had not happened. And one that never would. My head started to spinI couldn't seem to pull in enough oxygen from the air. No lungs. Jacob was entirely in control now, very still beside me. â€Å"Why do you do that?† he asked. He tugged lightly at one of my arms, which was bound around my chest, and then gave up when it wouldn't come loose easily. I hadn't even realized I'd moved them. â€Å"You do that when you're upset. Why?† â€Å"It hurts to think about them,† I whispered. â€Å"It's like I can't breathe like I'm breaking into pieces†It was bizarre how much I could tell Jacob now. We had no more secrets. He smoothed my hair. â€Å"It's okay, Bella, it's okay. I won't bring it up again. I'm sorry.† â€Å"I'm fine.† I gasped. â€Å"Happens all the time. Not your fault.† â€Å"We're a pretty messed-up pair, aren't we?† Jacob said. â€Å"Neither one of us can hold our shape together right.† â€Å"Pathetic,† I agreed, still breathless. â€Å"At least we have each other,† he said, clearly comforted by the thought. I was comforted, too. â€Å"At least there's that,† I agreed. And when we were together, it was fine. But Jacob had a horrible, dangerous job he felt compelled to do, and so I was often alone, stuck in La Push for safety, with nothing to do to keep my mind off any of my worries. I felt awkward, always taking up space at Billy's. I did some studying for another Calculus test that was coming up next week, but I could only look at math for so long. When I didn't have something obvious to do in my hands, I felt like I ought to be making conversation with Billythe pressure of normal societal rules. But Billy wasn't one for filling up the long silences, and so the awkwardness continued. I tried hanging out at Emily's place Wednesday afternoon, for a change. At first it was kind of nice. Emily was a cheerful person who never sat still. I drifted behind her while she flitted around her little house and yard, scrubbing at the spotless floor, pulling a tiny weed, fixing a broken hinge, tugging a string of wool through an ancient loom, and always cooking, too. She complained lightly about the increase in the boys' appetites from all their extra running, but it was easy to see she didn't mind taking care of them. It wasn't hard to be with herafter all, we were both wolf girls now. But Sam checked in after I'd been there for a few hours. I only stayed long enough to ascertain that Jacob was fine and there was no news, and then I had to escape. The aura of love and contentment that surrounded them was harder to take in concentrated doses, with no one else around to dilute it. So that left me wandering the beach, pacing the length of the rocky crescent back and forth, again and again. Alone time wasn't good for me. Thanks to the new honesty with Jacob, I'd been talking and thinking about the Cullens way too much. No matter how I tried to distract myselfand I had plenty to think of: I was honestly and desperately worried about Jacob and his wolf-brothers, I was terrified for Charlie and the others who thought they were hunting animals, I was getting in deeper and deeper with Jacob without ever having consciously decided to progress in that direction and I didn't know what to do about itnone of these very real, very deserving of thought, very pressing concerns could take my mind off the pain in my chest for long. Eventually, I couldn't even walk anymore, because I couldn't breathe. I sat down on a patch of semidry rocks and curled up in a ball. Jacob found me like that, and I could tell from his expression that he understood. â€Å"Sorry,† he said right away. He pulled me up from the ground and wrapped both arms around my shoulders. I hadn't realized that I was cold until then. His warmth made me shudder, but at least I could breathe with him there. â€Å"I'm ruining your spring break,† Jacob accused himself as we walked back up the beach. â€Å"No, you're not. I didn't have any plans. I don't think I like spring breaks, anyway.† â€Å"I'll take tomorrow morning off. The others can run without me. We'll do something fun.† The word seemed out of place in my life right now, barely comprehensible, bizarre. â€Å"Fun?† â€Å"Fun is exactly what you need. Hmm† he gazed out across the heaving gray waves, deliberating. As his eyes scanned the horizon, he had a flash of inspiration. â€Å"Got it!† he crowed. â€Å"Another promise to keep.† â€Å"What are you talking about?† He let go of my hand and pointed toward the southern edge of the beach, where the flat, rocky half-moon dead-ended against the sheer sea cliffs. I stared, uncomprehending. â€Å"Didn't I promise to take you cliff diving?† I shivered. â€Å"Yeah, it'll be pretty coldnot as cold as it is today. Can you feel the weather changing? The pressure? It will be warmer tomorrow. You up for it?† The dark water did not look inviting, and, from this angle, the cliffs looked even higher than before. But it had been days since I'd heard Edward's voice. That was probably part of the problem. I was addicted to the sound of my delusions. It made things worse if I went too long without them. Jumping off a cliff was certain to remedy that situation. â€Å"Sure, I'm up for it. Fun.† â€Å"It's a date,† he said, and draped his arm around my shoulders. â€Å"Okaynow let's go get you some sleep.† I didn't like the way the circles under his eyes were beginning to look permanently etched onto his skin. I woke early the next morning and snuck a change of clothes out to the truck. I had a feeling that Charlie would approve of today's plan just about as much as he would approve of the motorcycle. The idea of a distraction from all my worries had me almost excited. Maybe it would be fun. A date with Jacob, a date with Edward I laughed darkly to myself. Jake could say what he wanted about us being a messed-up pairI was the one who was truly messed up. I made the werewolf seem downright normal. I expected Jacob to meet me out front, the way he usually did when my noisy truck announced my arrival. When he didn't, I guessed that he might still be sleeping. I would waitlet him get as much rest as he could. He needed his sleep, and that would give the day time to warm a bit more. Jake had been right about the weather, though; it had changed in the night. A thick layer of clouds pressed heavily on the atmosphere now, making it almost sultry; it was warm and close under the gray blanket. I left my sweater in the truck. I knocked quietly on the door. â€Å"C'mon in, Bella,† Billy said. He was at the kitchen table, eating cold cereal. â€Å"Jake sleeping?† â€Å"Er, no.† He set his spoon down, and his eyebrows pulled together. â€Å"What happened?† I demanded. I could tell from his expression that something had. â€Å"Embry, Jared, and Paul crossed a fresh trail early this morning. Sam and Jake took off to help. Sam was hopefulshe's hedged herself in beside the mountains. He thinks they have a good chance to finish this.† â€Å"Oh, no, Billy,† I whispered. â€Å"Oh, no.† He chuckled, deep and low. â€Å"Do you really like La Push so well that you want to extend your sentence here?† â€Å"Don't make jokes, Billy. This is too scary for that.† â€Å"You're right,† he agreed, still complacent. His ancient eyes were impossible to read. â€Å"This one's tricky.† I bit my lip. â€Å"It's not as dangerous for them as you think it is. Sam knows what he's doing. You're the one that you should worry about. The vampire doesn't want to fight them. She's just trying to find a way around them to you.† â€Å"How does Sam know what he's doing?† I demanded, brushing aside his concern for me. â€Å"They've only killed just the one vampirethat could have been luck.† â€Å"We take what we do very seriously, Bella. Nothing's been forgotten. Everything they need to know has been passed down from father to son for generations.† That didn't comfort me the way he probably intended it to. The memory of Victoria, wild, catlike, lethal, was too strong in my head. If she couldn't get around the wolves, she would eventually try to go through them. Billy went back to his breakfast; I sat down on the sofa and flipped aimlessly though the TV channels. That didn't last long. I started to feel closed in by the small room, claustrophobic, upset by the fact that I couldn't see out the curtained windows. â€Å"I'll be at the beach,† I told Billy abruptly, and hurried out the door. Being outside didn't help as much as I'd hoped. The clouds pushed down with an invisible weight that kept the claustrophobia from easing. The forest seemed strangely vacant as I walked toward the beach. I didn't see any animalsno birds, no squirrels. I couldn't hear any birds, either. The silence was eerie; there wasn't even the sound of wind in the trees. I knew it was all just a product of the weather, but it still made me edgy. The heavy, warm pressure of the atmosphere was perceptible even to my weak human senses, and it hinted at something major in the storm department. A glance at the sky backed this up; the clouds were churning sluggishly despite the lack of breeze on the ground. The closest clouds were a smoky gray, but between the cracks I could see another layer that was a gruesome purple color. The skies had a ferocious plan in store for today. The animals must be bunkering down. As soon as I reached the beach, I wished I hadn't comeI'd already had enough of this place. I'd been here almost every day, wandering alone. Was it so much different from my nightmares? But where else to go? I trudged down to the driftwood tree, and sat at the end so that I could lean against the tangled roots. I stared up at the angry sky broodingly, waiting for the first drops to break the stillness. I tried not to think about the danger Jacob and his friends were in. Because nothing could happen to Jacob. The thought was unendurable. I'd lost too much alreadywould fate take the last few shreds of peace left behind? That seemed unfair, out of balance. But maybe I'd violated some unknown rule, crossed some line that had condemned me. Maybe it was wrong to be so involved with myths and legends, to turn my back on the human world. Maybe No. Nothing would happen to Jacob. I had to believe that or I wouldn't be able to function. â€Å"Argh!† I groaned, and jumped off the log. I couldn't sit still; it was worse than pacing. I'd really been counting on hearing Edward this morning. It seemed like that was the one thing that might make it bearable to live through this day. The hole had been festering lately, like it was getting revenge for the times that Jacob's presence had tamed it. The edges burned. The waves picked up as I paced, beginning to crash against the rocks, but there was still no wind. I felt pinned down by the pressure of the storm. Everything swirled around me, but it was perfectly still where I stood. The air had a faint electric chargeI could feel the static in my hair. Farther out, the waves were angrier than they were along the shore. I could see them battering against the line of the cliffs, spraying big white clouds of sea foam into the sky. There was still no movement in the air, though the clouds roiled more quickly now. It was eerie lookinglike the clouds were moving by their own will. I shivered, though I knew it was just a trick of the pressure. The cliffs were a black knife edge against the livid sky. Staring at them, I remembered the day Jacob had told me about Sam and his â€Å"gang.† I thought of the boysthe werewolvesthrowing themselves into the empty air. The image of the falling, spiraling figures was still vivid in my mind. I imagined the utter freedom of the fall I imagined the way Edward's voice would have sounded in my headfurious, velvet, perfect The burning in my chest flared agonizingly. There had to be some way to quench it. The pain was growing more and more intolerable by the second. I glared at the cliffs and the crashing waves. Well, why not? Why not quench it right now? Jacob had promised me cliff diving, hadn't he? Just because he was unavailable, should I have to give up the distraction I needed so badlyneeded even worse because Jacob was out risking his life? Risking it, in essence, for me. If it weren't for me, Victoria would not be killing people here just somewhere else, far away. If anything happened to Jacob, it would be my fault. That realization stabbed deep and had me jogging back up to the road toward Billy's house, where my truck waited. I knew my way to the lane that passed closest to the cliffs, but I had to hunt for the little path that would take me out to the ledge. As I followed it, I looked for turns or forks, knowing that Jake had planned to take me off the lower outcropping rather than the top, but the path wound in a thin single line toward the brink with no options. I didn't have time to find another way downthe storm was moving in quickly now. The wind was finally beginning to touch me, the clouds pressing closer to the ground. Just as I reached the place where the dirt path fanned out into the stone precipice, the first drops broke through and splattered on my face. It was not hard to convince myself that I didn't have time to search for another wayI wanted to jump from the top. This was the image that had lingered in my head. I wanted the long fall that would feel like flying. I knew that this was the stupidest, most reckless thing I had done yet. The thought made me smile. The pain was already easing, as if my body knew that Edward's voice was just seconds away The ocean sounded very far away, somehow farther than before, when I was on the path in the trees. I grimaced when I thought of the probable temperature of the water. But I wasn't going to let that stop me. The wind blew stronger now, whipping the rain into eddies around me. I stepped out to the edge, keeping my eyes on the empty space in front of me. My toes felt ahead blindly, caressing the edge of the rock when they encountered it. I drew in a deep breath and held it . . waiting. â€Å"Bella.† I smiled and exhaled. Yes? I didn't answer out loud, for fear that the sound of my voice would shatter the beautiful illusion. He sounded so real, so close. It was only when lie was disapproving like this that I could hear the true memory of his voicethe velvet texture and the musical intonation that made up the most perfect of all voices. â€Å"Don't do this,† he pleaded. You wanted me to be human, I reminded him. Well, watch me. â€Å"Please. For me.† But you won't stay with me any other way. â€Å"Please.† It was just a whisper in the blowing rain that tossed my hair and drenched my clothesmaking me as wet as if this were my second jump of the day. I rolled up onto the balls of my feet. â€Å"No, Bella!† He was angry now, and the anger was so lovely. I smiled and raised my arms straight out, as if I were going to dive, lifting my face into the rain. But it was too ingrained from years of swimming at the public poolfeet first, first time. I leaned forward, crouching to get more spring And I flung myself off the cliff. I screamed as I dropped through the open air like a meteor, but it was a scream of exhilaration and not fear. The wind resisted, trying vainly to fight the unconquerable gravity, pushing against me and twirling me in spirals like a rocket crashing to the earth. Yes! The word echoed through my head as I sliced through the surface of the water. It was icy, colder than I'd feared, and yet the chill only added to the high. I was proud of myself as I plunged deeper into the freezing black water. I hadn't had one moment of terrorjust pure adrenaline. Really, the fall wasn't scary at all. Where was the challenge? That was when the current caught me. I'd been so preoccupied by the size of the cliffs, by the obvious danger of their high, sheer faces, that I hadn't worried at all about the dark water waiting. I never dreamed that the true menace was lurking far below me, under the heaving surf. It felt like the waves were fighting over me, jerking me back and forth between them as if determined to share by pulling me into halves. I knew the right way to avoid a riptide: swim parallel to the beach rather than struggling for the shore. But the knowledge did me little good when I didn't know which way the shore was. I couldn't even tell which way the surface was. The angry water was black in every direction; there was no brightness to direct me upward. Gravity was all-powerful when it competed with the air, but it had nothing on the wavesI couldn't feel a downward pull, a sinking in any direction. Just the battering of the current that flung me round and round like a rag doll. I fought to keep my breath in, to keep my lips locked around my last store of oxygen. It didn't surprise me that my delusion of Edward was there. He owed me that much, considering that I was dying. I was surprised by how sure that knowledge was. I was going to drown. I was drowning. â€Å"Keep swimming!† Edward begged urgently in my head. Where? There was nothing but the darkness. There was no place to swim to. â€Å"Stop that!† he ordered. â€Å"Don't you dare give up!† The cold of the water was numbing my arms and legs. I didn't feel the buffeting so much as before. It was more of just a dizziness now, a helpless spinning in the water. But I listened to him. I forced my arms to continue reaching, my legs to kick harder, though every second I was facing a new direction. It couldn't be doing any good. What was the point? â€Å"Fight!† he yelled. â€Å"Damn it, Bella, keep fighting.† Why? I didn't want to fight anymore. And it wasn't the light-headedness, or the cold, or the failure of my arms as the muscles gave out in exhaustion, that made me content to stay where I was. I was almost happy that it was over. This was an easier death than others I'd faced. Oddly peaceful. I thought briefly of the clichs, about how you were suppose to see your life flash before your eyes. I was so much luckier. Who wanted to see a rerun, anyway? I saw him, and I had no will to fight. It was so clear, so much more defined than any memory. My subconscious had stored Edward away in flawless detail, saving him for this final moment. I could see his perfect face as if he were really there; the exact shade of his icy skin, the shape of his lips, the line of his jaw, the gold glinting in his furious eyes. He was angry, naturally, that I was giving up. His teeth were clenched and his nostrils flared with rage. â€Å"No! Bella, no!† My ears were flooded with the freezing water, but his voice was clearer than ever. I ignored his words and concentrated on the sound of his voice. Why would I fight when I was so happy where I was? Even as my lungs burned for more air and my legs cramped in the icy cold, I was content. I'd forgotten what real happiness felt like. Happiness. It made the whole dying thing pretty bearable. The current won at that moment, shoving me abruptly against something hard, a rock invisible in the gloom. It hit me solidly across the chest, slamming into me like an iron bar, and the breath whooshed out of my lungs, escaping in a thick cloud of silver bubbles. Water flooded down my throat, choking and burning. The iron bar seemed to be dragging me, pulling me away from Edward, deeper into the dark, to the ocean floor. Goodbye, I love you, was my last thought.

Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo - 1604 Words

Benefits of Congestion Charge in Tokyo Since the 1940s, motorization has increased rapidly around the world, particularly private vehicles. The trend has created both economic and individual benefits. The development resulted in the prosperity of the metropolis, while regional areas declined steeply in scale. In Japan, the least number of vehicles per household by prefecture was Tokyo with 0.497(Automobile Inspection Association, 2009). Nevertheless, there are chronic enormous traffic jams in Tokyo. Congestion charging systems have been considered because many suburbanites have gathered to work, study and make a purchase in the city. As a result of the consideration, the new systems have been practised in many cities, such as Oslo,†¦show more content†¦In 1997, likewise, Japan organised the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The treaty (United Nations, 1998) indicates: It was to establish a legally binding international agreement, whereby all the participating nations commit themselves to tackling the issue of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions. Although Japan’s target was a reduction of 6% from 1990 levels by the year 2012, it might be difficult to achieve the objective, but the definite charging plan might inspire Japan to approach the aim effectively. A heated debate about the influence on car businesses has become another argument against the use of congestion charge. It has been contended that car consumption would experience a sharp decrease owing to the new device (Environment of Tokyo, 2010). It has been also claimed that the automobile industry, which has been protected by the Japanese government since World War II and taken the major role in the economy (University of Tokyo, 2004), would lose the power and might be difficult to compete with foreign companies. 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